PLAGIARISM: THE INTELLECTUAL THEFT.


PLAGIARISM: THE INTELLECTUAL THEFT.

Plagiarism is the copying of another person’s ideas, text or other creative work, and presenting it as one’s own especially without permission. It can also be said to be the illegal usage of someone else idea or work without due acknowledge of the original author or owner of the idea or work. Also, plagiarism is the representing another person’s intellectual work as someone’s own in any academic assignment without providing proper citation. It includes

There has been rampant report of intellectual theft in the education sector and several people who are guilty of the crime have been sacked from their place of works, demoted or faced the wrath of the law. The Nigeria Copy Right Acts duly protect the intellectual properties of Nigerians upon being patented by the government.    

There is nothing new under the Earth. What one may consider as a new and pristine idea or thought, if one undergoes a historical voyage of discovery, one will be shocked to find out that similar idea or thought had once been in existence. Sometimes the author or pathfinder of the idea or thought may be known or unknown. One’s horizon of knowledge get broadens the more one reads and study. Our idea and thought are as a result of what we read and study over time. 

Here is an excerpt from a book entitled, “HOW TO BUILD YOUR CONFIDENCE” to show that one’s horizon of knowledge get broadens the more one reads and studies. 

“It is commonly supposed that Lincoln originated the immortal phrase which closed this address; but did he? Hemdon, his law partner, had given Lincoln, several years previously, a copy of Theodore Parker's addresses. Lincoln read and under-scored in this book the words: 'Democracy is direct self-government, over all the people, by all the people, and for all the people." Theodore Parker may have borrowed his phraseology from Webster, who had said, four years earlier, in his famous reply to Hayne 'The people's government, made for the people, made by the people, and answerable to the people." 

Webster may have borrowed his phraseology from President James Monroe, who had given voice to the same idea a third of a century earlier. And to whom was James Monroe indebted? Five hundred years before Monroe was born, Wyclif had said, in the preface to the translation of the Scriptures,  that "this Bible is for the government of the people, by the people, and for the people". 

And long before Wyclif lived, more 400 years before the birth of Christ, Cleon, in an address to the men of Athens, spoke of a rule "of the people, by the people, and for the people". And from what ancient source Cleon drew his inspiration is a matter lost in the fog and night of antiquity.”



The burning question from the above extract is, does any of the speaker quote anyone or make reference to anyone to have given the definition of democracy in that way?


However, it is a trite law that referencing shows the richness of one’s research and boost one’s credibility. Also it is true that one cannot reference all idea and thought because some pathfinders or pioneers of those idea and thought may have been lost to antiquity.

In summation, good referencing shows the extents of one’s scholarship and boosts the credibility of a research work. Due acknowledgment is the hallmark of a credible work. Truth be told not all idea and thought can be referenced to anyone.    

 

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE: THE RISE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON

 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE : THE RISE AND FALL OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

 Napoleon a short man of about 5 feet tall cast a long shadow over the history of modern time. From 1789 to 1815 France was in the hand of a key minded military dictator with exceptional ability who saw himself as a man of destiny-military genius.  

He rose from obscurity into mastering France. When he was born the French troop invaded Corsica to dispel a Corsican independent movement. In his own words later on, “I was born when my country was dying”. He was born on 15th August 1769 in a small island of Corsica, Ajaccio into an impoverished family. His father was one of those who supported the king of France in the annexation of Ajaccio. As a result of this, the king rewarded him with nobility right thus Napoleon gained admission into military school at Bienne through the king’s scholarship. 

At the age of 10, he played key interest into military tasks especially artillery warfare and by 1785, he graduated with a rank of Sub-lieutenant at the age of 16 years old. Napoleon also read and was influenced by the works of Voltaire “Candide” 1759 and Rousseau “Social Contract” 1762. 

The Rise

The entire rise of Napoleon was a mystery. By 1795, faith made him into power. He was able to pull down the Royalist Army who was threatening during the national convention meeting to disturb the meeting. Due to this, he was promoted to Brigadier on the 9th of March 1796; he got married to Josephine a widow. 

On 1796, he was appointed to lead the French Army stationed in Italy. He marched through Ales defeated Italy and Germany and forced them to sign the treaty of Campio Formio 17 October 1797 which meant that France would annex Rhineland and Northern Italy. Among the Fourth Coalition which was the difficult for him to defeat was the British. Because the British navy supremacy. Napoleon later moved to Egypt to weaken British economy and defeat Britain at the Battle of Pyramid on 21st July 1798.  It was one of Napoleon officers that discovered Rosetta Stone that was used to decode hieroglyphics. But he lost the Battle of Nile. He was defeated by Admiral Hereto Nelson. Napoleon returned to France in 1799. When he came back the country was in political quagmire. The French were hoping for normalcy. 

Napoleon took the political instability in France arising from gross mismanagement, corruption and ineptitude of the King and staged a coup on the 9th of November 17 through the help of the two directories Roger Ducos and Emmanuel Abbey Sieyes. Having staged this coup, Napoleon started to form new government. The executive power rested on the three planners of the coup. By 1802, he also set forth for plebiscite through this, he became a sole 

consulate. By 2nd December 1804, he became the emperor of France in Nostradam by Pope Pius VII. Napoleon made significant reforms in France.  

It is said that the war expedition of Napoleon maybe ephemeral but his civilian work is built on granite.  Napoleon made significant move to improve the economy of France by reducing budget expenditure and established France national Bank by 1800. By 1802, this bank was entrusted with printing notes known as “Franc de Germinal”. He also made a move of reconciliation by granting pardon to the Émigrés after the oath. On his military reform, he made sure that all military allegiance was accorded to him. There was also government reformation and reduction of tax during the tenure of Napoleon. 

The most significant of his reformations was the Napoleonic Code. This was said to be the most influential document in the world. It was drafted by the French jurists between 1801 and 1804. It was the first code of the French which had influenced many codes in the world. It had many ordinances marriage ordinance, criminal ordinance, penal code, criminal proceeding. Also, he established the Legion of Honour in 1802 which was made in remembrance of the past heroes of France. Also, Napoleon signed the treaty of Concordant of 1802 with the Pope. This brought relieve to the hostility between the church and the French government. Catholic Church was espoused as the majority religion in France.   

Despite all these reforms, Napoleon was not contented to rule France alone. He wanted to conquer the whole of Europe through his continental policy. It was this that saw to his beginning of end for him. 

The Fall 

The fall of Napoleon can be attributed to his inordinate ambition to rule the whole of Europe through his ambitious continental policy of 1806. After being defeated in the Trafalgar Battle, Napoleon used other means to fight against Britain by making all his allies to block any economic exchange with the British government. Pope Pius II was the first to defer the continental system and he was arrested in 1809. The arrest of the pope spurred the anger and hostility of the Catholic Church against the Napoleon government. 








Also, the Peninsula war of 1808 saw to the demoralization of the France soldiers. The great Napoleon was quoted saying, “The Spanish peninsula kills me”.  This war was also known as the Spanish Ulcer.  Also, the Napoleon march to Moscow on June 1812 also contributed to his downfall. Napoleon led large number of French soldiers to Russia in order to capture it but unfortunately, the weather was not favourable to them. Thousands of the French soldiers died in the hands of unfavourable and severe cold. The Russians used scotch earth policy against the French soldiers. More than 500,000 French soldiers died during this military expedition.       



Lastly, the Battle of Leipzig of 1813 in Germany further saw to the first arrest of Napoleon the great. Prussia, Russia, Austria and Britain formed Fourth the Coalition to defeat Napoleon. The Fourth Coalition signed a treaty of Chaumont by 1814. Napoleon was arrested and sent to the Island of Elba. Unfortunately, Napoleon escaped from Elba and returned to France to regroup his army. These days of his escape and return to France were known as the Hundred Days of Napoleon. Napoleon through subtle and Hitler’s kind of rhetoric was able to brain wash the French army to fight on his side against the fourth coalition. On June 18, 1815 at the historic Battle of Waterloo Napoleon the great was finally defeated by the indomitable fourth coalition. He was recaptured and sent to the Island of Helena. He died on 1821. Before he gave up the ghost he said; “France, army, head of the army, Josephine.” 







SALIENT QUOTABLE QOUTES OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE.

1. “There is only one way to encourage morality,” he once said, “and that is to re-establish religion. Society cannot exist without some being richer than others, and this inequality cannot exist without religion. When one man is dying of hunger next door to another who is stuffing himself with food, the poor man simply cannot accept the disparity unless some authority tells him, ‘God wishes it so ... in heaven things will be different.”

2. “It is strange that Napoleon, whose good sense amounted to genius, never discovered the point at which the impossible begins. . . . The impossible,’ he told me with a smile, ‘is the spectre of the timid and the refuge of the coward . . . the word is only a confession of impotence’... he thought only of satisfying his own desires and adding incessantly to his own glory and greatness . . . death alone could set a limit to his plans and curb his ambition.’’

3. “France, army, head of the army, Josephine.” 

4. “Every Frenchman could say during my reign, —‘I shall be minister, grand officer, duke, count, baron, if I earn it—even king!”’ 

5. I conquered other kingdoms,” he admitted, “I did so in order that France would be the beneficiary.”

6. “I grew up on the battlefield. A man like me does not give a damn about the lives of a million men.” 

7. “If I had succeeded, I would have been the greatest man known to history.” 

8. “I live only for posterity.” 

9. Napoleon once said. “Death is nothing, but to live defeated and without glory is to die every day.”


10. “I therefore embraced every occasion of improvement; and every new thing that I observed I treasured up in my memory. “

11. “People generally mock the fears of others when they are themselves in safety”

12. “The world suffers a lot. Not because of the violence of bad people but because of the silence of good people.

13. “I have succeeded in whatever i have undertaken because I have willed it. I have never hesitated which has given me an advantage over the rest of mankind”

14. “There is no impossibility in my dictionary.”

JIHAD: THE HOLY WAR OF 1804 IN NIGERIA.

 JIHAD: THE HOLY WAR OF 1804 IN NIGERIA.

Jihad means a holy war. A war fought in the name of Allah by His followers to spread Islam. Jihad is regarded as the sixth pillar of Islam (Confession of Faith, Prayer, Solat, Fasting, Zakat and Pilgrimage). And this is being backed up or supported in the holy Quran Chapter 2 verses 190-191 which gives room for the Muslims to wage war against their enemies in order to get rid of hostility and aggression. The place which is under the control of Islam and whose populace are Muslims is called Idar- al-Islam. While a place which is not under the administration of Islam is called Idar-al-hab. 

The historic and historical jihad that happened in Nigeria was recorded to have started in June 1804 in Gobir and spread till 1812 was led or instigated by a pious brilliant generous revolutionary reformer and Islamic scholar in person of Usman dan Fodio. The history of the jihad would be incomplete without giving a brief history about the instigator of the revolutionary event, Usman Dan Fodio. Usman Dan Fodio was born in December 15, 1754 in a remote village of Maratta in the Hausa-speaking city-state of Gobir in what is today Northern Nigeria. He was taught how to read and write Arabic by his father, Muhammed Fodiye who was also an Islamic scholar from Toronkawa clan an emigrant from Futo-Toro in Senegal in the 15th century. He also studied law, theology and philosophy in Agadez in what is today Niger Republic under the radical Islamic scholar Jibril Ibn Umar who was exiled from Agadez because of his revolutionary teaching on Islam. And he was also taught by Uthman Bindim.

After completing his studies, in the year 1774 he went back to Gobir and began to preach Islam to the people who at that time mixed paganism with Islam in Gobir and Zamfara. In 1787 and 1792 he met Bawa the sultan of Gobir with whom he made some concessions with such as: to preach without molestation, nobody who responded to his call will be prevented from joining his community, all men wearing hijab should be treated with respect, to release political prisoners and relieve taxation including his own freedom to propagate Islam without fear of intimidation.

Throughout the 1780’s and 1790’s Usman’s reputation increased as did the size and the importance of the community that looked to him for religious and political leadership. His popularity as an intelligent and brilliant Islamic scholar attracted many youths to Degel for learning and spiritual counselling under him. Particularly closely associated with him were his younger brother, Abdullah, who was one of his pupils and his son Muhammad Bello, both distinguished teachers and writers.  From 1794 to 1795 during his stay in Degel, the new ruler of Gobir , Nafata felt threaten and adopted a hostile attitude to Usman and his community.  Nafata initiated or made hostile measures against Usman and his followers by forbidding the wearing of their distinctive dress. 

In 1802 Yunfa the successor of Nafata was more hostile and sent Usman from Degel. This was regarded as hijra which happened to prophet Muhammed (S.A.W) when he was being persecuted in Mecca and ran away to Yathrib (Mecca) in July 622 AD. In the year 1803, Sheik Usman and hundreds of his followers migrated to Gudu which was 30 miles (40km) to the North West where he continued to propagate Islam. 

The breakdown, when it finally occurred, tuned on a confused incident in which Usman supporters forcibly freed Muslim prisoners taken by a Gobir military expedition. While at Gudu Usman declared a holy war (jihad) against King Yunfa of Gobir and his people as he felt their way of life did not correspond with the teaching of Islam. In 1804, Usman formally declared a holy war on the whole of Hausa land and many people volunteered to join his army. Yunfa and his forces were defeated in the Battle of Tabkin Kwotto in June.   The remote village of Sokoto was made as the headquarters of the Usman army in 1804 to1805 which later became the capital of the Sokoto Caliphate later in the future.  In 1808 the war spread to Kano, Katsina and Daura. In 1809, Sokoto was made the permanent capital of the Fulani Empire under the Sokoto Caliphate.       

Uthman retired from battle in 1811 and returned to teaching and writing but his armies continued their conquest. He wrote two manifestoes the Wathiquat al-Sudan and the Kitab-al-Farq in which stated the religious and social objective of the jihad. In 1812, the jihad in Zaria continued and extended their operation to Gombe, Bauchi, Adamawa, Gwandu until 1815. But they recorded failure in Kanem Bornu but succeeded in capturing Nupe and Yoruba land. 

The religious revolution united the Hausa states under Islamic law and in 1812, led to the establishment of an empire called the Sokoto Caliphate composed of emirates and sub emirates many of which were built on the sites of previous Hausa-states. The Sokoto Caliphate became the most powerful economic and political system of the region during the 19th century and contributed profoundly to the islamization of Northern Nigeria.

His Islamic religious empire included most of what is now northern Nigeria and parts of Niger as well as northern Cameroon. The holy war inspired a series of holy wars throughout West Africa at the time and Islam became the dominant faith among the people of West Africa.  

In 1837, the Sokoto Caliphate, with an estimated population  of over 20 million people, had become the most populous empire in west Africa. The caliphate existed until it was conquered by the British colonial forces in 1903. Sheik Usman Dan Fodio died on April 20, 1817.     

JAJA OF OPOBO: THE LIFE HISTORY OF JAJA OF OPOBO


 JAJA OF OPOBO: THE LIFE HISTORY OF JAJA OF OPOBO.


Mbanaso Ozurumba Okwara was born around 1821 in Umudoruoha Amaigbo town in south eastern Igbo speaking area presently in Nwangele local government area of Imo State. He was kidnapped at the age of 12 and sold to a powerful slave trader Chief Allison. But due to his insubordination made Allison to sell him out and he was resold to Chief Madu in1833 of the House of Anna Pepple. At the death of Madu, his position went to Aldin his son. But his son was inept and weak and incurred so many debts. By the time he died in 1861, the Anna Pepple House was bankrupt. It was as a result of this vacuum that Mbanaso was chosen to head the House of Anna Pepple unanimously due to his wealth, power and ambition in 1863. 

The charismatic Mbanaso rose to the society through a sheer force of character. He was able to clear off the debt which he incurred from his successor and went further to establish trading relationship with the British Navy officers. He bore an honorific name Jubo Jubogha. He was fondly called by his kinsmen as Jujo whereas the European christened him Jaja thus King Jaja. 

King Jaja was able to register himself within the Niger-Delta as a very wealthy trader in palm oil and a powerful middleman who served as intermediary between the people of Niger-Delta and the European traders. The wealth he made in palm oil arose envy from many other houses and competition ensued from several houses particularly Manilla Pepple House headed by Oko Jumbo. By 1869, war broke out between the two houses and King Jaja secured his independence and moved inland to secure a new land which he named Opobo and took fourteen chiefs from the eighteen Bonny Chiefs and signed a treaty of protection in 1870 with Charles Livingstone. 

According to this treaty, it gave protection to the Opobo also with this treaty he was officially recognised as the leader of Opobo. He got married to several women from different tribes in an effort to strengthen his position. He also understood the importance of education hence he enrolled Mark and Sunday Jaja to study abroad (Scotland). The British official manipulated the rivalry among King Jaja and other Bonny Chiefs by giving them impression that they would secure unalloyed support of the British if they allow their warriors to be drilled by the British military officers. Through this, the British officials were able to get soldiers to fight on their behalf such as Asante war of 1873. King Jaja sent 105 warriors while Manilla sent 53 warriors to the British. By circa 1875 King Victoria of England gifted Jaja of Opobo a sword in recognition of his military patronage. 





However, the commercial acumen and wealth of King Jaja brought about a lot of jealousy from the locals and the British. First, his position as a powerful middleman meant that the British traders must pass through him before they could procure palm oil. He bought from the hinterland and sold to the British traders for export. His position denied the British a direct access to the hinterland even though the British agents paid their taxes (money and dash) for them to trade along the coastline. This attitude brought him to the collision with the Bitish traders. Thus, on 19th of December 1884 another treaty was signed with Edward Hyde Hewett to allow the British to trade freely. Following the Berlin Conference of 1884/1885 with which the British government got the effective control of Nigeria. With this, the British agents wanted to get rid of King Jaja of Opobo in order to trade with the hinterland freely. 

Hence, by 1887, Edward ordered all the British agents to stop paying taxes to King Jaja of Opobo. In that same year, he went on a sick leave allowing the impatient Henry Hamilton Johnson to deputise him as the acting consul of the Bight of Benin and Biafra. Johnson continued to have disagreement with King Jaja. 

Hence, on the 19th September 1887 King Jaja of Opobo was summoned by Henry Hamilton Johnson on board. He was confronted with a gun boat Hms Goshawk but ostensibly to negotiate trade activities and to end trading conflict or dispute. When he got on board, he was given two options: one to go back to Opobo land and watch it as being bombarded; two to allow himself for trial in Accra. King Jaja chose to go to Accra for prosecution. He was tried in Accra in the Gold Coast (now Ghana) then exiled, first to London, and later to Saint Vincent and Barbados in the British West Indies. His presence in the West Indies was alleged to be the cause of civil unrest, as the people of Barbados, of African descent, were upset at the poor treatment of a King from their homeland.

In 1891, Jaja was granted permission to return to Opobo, but died en route. Following his exile and death, the power of the Opobo state rapidly declined. In 1903 the King Jaja of Opobo Memorial was erected in his honor in Opobo town centre.

NO WOMEN AT THE BAR: HOW WOMEN MADE THEIR WAY INTO THE LEGAL PROFESSION.


HOW WOMEN MADE THEIR ENTRANCE INTO THE LEGAL PROFESSION. 

There was a popular saying that; “There is no women at the bar”. This arose from a long time discrimination of women in the legal profession. According to kingsleynapley blogs “What is the basis for a legal ruling that a woman is not a person for the purposes of a statute?  The starting point is a 14th century law textbook which states that women cannot be lawyers.  Then, a 16th century scholar, Edward Coke, quotes that textbook approvingly but without any other authority.  Three hundred years later, three justices of the English Court of Appeal refuse to interpret a statutory provision to encompass women, on the basis that “no woman has ever been an attorney-at-law.”” Until 1922, in Britain there were no women in the legal profession because they were not regarded as “person” under the Solicitor Act of 1843. [1] Section 2 of the Solicitors Act provided that “No person shall act as an Attorney or Solicitor […] unless such Person shall after the passing of this Act be admitted and enrolled and otherwise duly qualified as an Attorney or Solicitor, pursuant to the Directions and Regulations of this Act.”

In 1913, there was a case of Bebb v Law Society [1914] [1914] 1 Ch. 286 [2] where women vowed against this discrimination and sought that Bebb was a “person" under the Solicitor Acts. Therefore, she was entitled to be called to the bar. Here is the concise fact of the case the year was 1913, and the case was Bebb v The Law Society. Gwyneth Bebb was born in 1889.  She studied jurisprudence at St Hugh’s College, Oxford, and received first-class marks in her examinations, but at that time women were not awarded degrees and so she did not formally graduate.  In 1913, along with Karin Costelloe, Maud Ingram (later Maud Crofts), and Frances Nettlefold, Bebb applied to the Law Society to sit the preliminary examinations, with a view to becoming a solicitor.  The Law Society returned her fee, informing her that if she presented herself for examination, she would not be allowed to take it, since as a woman she could not be admitted as a solicitor of the Supreme Court.

Bebb and her fellow applicants brought an action against the Law Society.  In her suit, she asked for a declaration that she was a “person” within the meaning of the Solicitors Act 1843.  The case was dismissed by the High Court in July 1913 and so Bebb went to the Court of Appeal, which heard her case in December of 1913.

Bebb’s Arguments

The Solicitors Act 1843 came into force as part of a wider process of greater regulation of the legal profession. Section 2 of the Solicitors Act provided that “No person shall act as an Attorney or Solicitor […] unless such Person shall after the passing of this Act be admitted and enrolled and otherwise duly qualified as an Attorney or Solicitor, pursuant to the Directions and Regulations of this Act.”



Furthermore Section 48 of the Solicitors Act provided that “every word importing the Masculine Gender only shall extend and be applied to a Female as well as Male […] unless in any of the Cases aforesaid it be otherwise specially provided, or there by something in the Subject or Context, repugnant to such Construction”.

The issue in Bebb’s case therefore, was whether there was any reason why the word “person” in Section 2 could not be interpreted to include women.

Counsel for Bebb, Lord Robert Cecil KC, argued that by virtue of these provisions, women had a right to be admitted unless there had been an absolute rule of law disqualifying them; he submitted that there was no such statute.  By contrast, women had acted as attorneys for their husbands in the reign of the fourteenth-century King Edward III (in the sense of acting on their behalf, presumably because their husbands were abroad, fighting the Hundred Years’ War); women were now permitted to practise as solicitors overseas; the recent trend of legislation had been to open opportunities to women.  Counsel concluded, “There is no reason in the nature of things why women should not practise, and the plaintiff is a particularly capable person”.

The justices disagreed (although they did recognise the ability of Gwyneth Bebb).  The statute could not be interpreted to include women, despite what it said in plain text, because women had never been allowed to be attorneys.  There was not enough in the statutes to show that the legislature intended, by their provisions, to open the profession to women.

The Judgment

The Master of the Rolls, Cozens-Hardy, went first.  He considered that there was nothing in the Solicitors Act which destroyed or removed the existing disability (used here in the sense of a disqualification or prohibition) of women to practise as solicitors.  The question in the case, therefore, was whether such a prohibition was in place at the time the Solicitors Act was passed.  His conclusion; that there was.  No woman had been an attorney-at-law, or had applied or attempted to be an attorney-at-law, and that this was the “long uniform and uninterrupted usage” which established a principle at common law that a woman could not be an attorney-at-law.  It was not for the courts to legislate on the matter, but for Parliament.

Lord Justice Swinfen Eady followed.  He set out a history of the regulation of the profession .  Like his brother judge, he remarked that “no instance of a woman attorney has […] as far as it is known, ever existed” and “From that time continuously to the present, there is no instance of any woman being an attorney” and this raises a presumption of what the law is on the matter.  He was satisfied to rest his interpretation of the Solicitors Act upon “the inveterate practice of the centuries”.  Like the Master of the Rolls, he concluded that “if there is to be any change from the ancient practice, it is a change which must be effected by Parliament, and the law must be altered”.


There was to be no dissent from Lord Justice Phillimore.  It was the justices’ function to declare the law, and common law was to be determined by “what we ascertain to be the received inveterate usage of the country”. Again, the conclusion was ‘that’s just the way it is!’   There had never been a suggestion that the office of attorney was one which was open to a woman.  Not only that, but there was an additional obstacle to female attorneys: married women were not at absolute liberty to enter into binding contracts, and so would be “unfitted either for entering into articles or for contracting with their clients”.  Of course, spinsters were not limited in that way, but “it would be a serious inconvenience if, in the middle of her articles, or in the middle of conducting a piece of litigation, a woman was suddenly to be disqualified from contracting by reason of her marriage”. Unfortunately, the Supreme Court ruled that the right of being called into the Law Society was only given to “a person” which only referred to men. Therefore, Bebbs was not a person and not entitled to be called to the bar.  




Fortunately, in the case of Edward v A.G Canada, [3] the case gave a new definition to the meaning of “person” which encompassed the women in its meaning. The Privy Council ruled that women were also persons and therefore entitled to be called to the bar. This laid a landmark in the history of women in the legal profession and saw to the encroachment of women into the legal profession.   

Thankfully, it was only a further five years before the Sex Discrimination (Removal) Act 1919 [4] declared that “A person shall not be disqualified by sex or marriage from […] entering or assuming or carrying on any civil profession or vocation, or admission to any incorporated society…”, spurred in part by the publicity arising from this case (as well as the up swell in awareness of women’s rights from the Suffrage movements and the role played by women in the Great War).  In 1922 the first women, Maud Crofts among them, passed the Law Society examinations, and on 18 December of that year, Carrie Morrison became the first woman to be admitted as a solicitor in England. Sadly, Gwyneth Bebb was not amongst them.  She had died the year before, aged only 31, from complications arising from her second pregnancy. [5]

Reference 

[1] Solicitor Act of 1843

[2] Bebb v Law Society [1914] [1914] 1 Ch. 286

[3] Edward v A.G Canada

[4] Sex Discrimination (Removal) Act 1919 

[5] https://www.kingsleynapley.co.uk/insights/blogs/giving-something-back/iwd-a-woman-is-not-a-person-within-the-meaning-of-the-solicitors-act-1843-a-review-of-bebb-v-the-law-society-1914-1-ch-286#:~:text=Section%2048%20of%20the%20Solicitors,%2C%20repugnant%20to%20such%20Construction”.

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